This archive is under development.
Marjoram
Nasturtium
Nutmeg
Orange
Pepper, Black (And White, Green And Red)
Marjoram is found in many herb mixtures and is the classic herb for flavouring sausages.
| Species: | Maiorana hortensis. |
| Pictures: | The pictures show the plants in full growth, the flowers and both fresh and dried marjoram leaves. |
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Marjoram plants | Marjoram flowers | Marjoram leaves, fresh and dried |
Origin: | Western Asia. |
Source: | Marjoram originates in Asia Minor and is popularly cultivated in Mediterranean countries, Central and Eastern Europe. The best qualities require a hot climate. |
Used Part: | Leaves. |
Family: | Lamiaceae (mint family). |
Effect: | Aromatic and slightly bitter. It does not bear much olfactory resemblance to the botanically related oregano. |
Etymology: | Marjoram was called amaracum in Latin, which in turn was taken from Greek amarakos. The origin of the Greek name is unknown, but it may be further East as indicated by the Sanskrit name maruva. The plant’s reputation as an aphrodisiac in Roman literature may be due to the similarity of amaracum to the linguistically unrelated Latin amor “love”. The names in most modern European languages derive from amaracum and have been additionally influenced by the Latin maior “greater”, via folk etymology. Examples include Norwegian merian, French marjolaine and Italian maggiorana. The species name hortensis derives from the Latin word for "garden”. In many Eastern Mediterranean countries no clear distinction is made between marjoram and other aromatic herbs of the mint family. The Turkish kekik, Arabic zatar and related terms in Hebrew and Iranian apply to a variety of native herbs including oregano, marjoram, thyme and savory. Usage may vary even within a given language, depending on the region and on the local flora. In Jordan, zahtar means a spice mix containing such herbs. |
Uses: | Marjoram is similar to tarragon, although botanically unrelated, in being a spice that needs a warm climate to develop its aroma but which loses some fragrance when dried. Despite these deficiencies, it is a well-established culinary herb across Central Europe. Dried marjoram is extremely important in industrial food processing and is much used (with thyme) in spice mixtures for the production of sausages. In Germany, where several such herb sausages are produced, the plant is called wurstkraut “sausage herb”. The addition of marjoram to boiled or fried liver is a classic. Marjoram may be effectively combined with bay leaves and goes well with small amounts of black pepper or juniper. Combinations of the last type are well suited to ragouts, particularly venison ragout. Marjoram also has a place in vegetable dishes and works well with heavy vegetables such as legumes or cabbage. Fried potato spiced with liberal amounts of marjoram is delicious. Fresh marjoram is more popular in Southern European cuisines due to the warm climate. Fresh marjoram adds new accents to the French fines herbes and is frequently suggested for delicate fish dishes, to which it should be added shortly before serving. Only in less subtly flavoured dishes, such as Italian tomato sauces spiced with garlic, can fresh marjoram be successfully replaced by oregano. Fresh marjoram is well suited for the French bouquet garni. In Western Asia, particularly in Jordan, Lebanon and Israel, a local related species majorana syriaca is a common flavouring for grilled mutton and is also used to flavour bread. Known as zahtar, it is more aromatic than the European variant. In Jordan, zahtar is used to prepare a spice mixture known by the same name and a similar zahtar blend is also a popular spice mixture in Israel. If unavailable, the Western Asian marjoram is best substituted by a mild type of thyme rather than by European “sweet” marjoram. Marjoram is also popular further North in the Caucasus. The cuisine of Georgia is particularly known for its subtle blends of herbs and for its pleasantly fruity, acidic-sweet, spiced sauces. Herbs are usually employed in form of khmeli-suneli “dried herbs”. The mixture contains marjoram, savory, dill and basil plus a small amounts of black pepper and saffron. Optional herbs are parsley, mint and coriander. Khmeli-suneli is used for various Georgian meat and vegetable stews and for the many sauces for which Georgian cuisine is so famous. Best known in the West is tkemali sauce made from the local wild variety prunus cerasifera, prepared by boiling and pureeing the fruits. |
Masses of nasturtium grow in my back garden in a flower bed. It spreads rapidly but dies instantly with the first frost of the year.
| Species: | Tropaeolum majus. |
| Pictures: | The pictures show the flowering plant, the flowers and leaves and a ripe bud. |
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Flowering nasturtium | Nasturtium flower and leaves | Ripe bud |
| Origin: | South America. |
Source: | Nasturtium originates from Peru and was introduced to Europe by the Spanish conquistadors. It is a common ornamental plant less frequently used for cooking than other cresses. |
Used Part: | Fresh leaves. Unripe nasturtium fruits can be pickled and used as a substitute for capers. |
Family: | Tropaeolaceae (nasturtium family). Confusingly, the plant is regarded as a cress, whereas both garden cress and water cress belong to the different family brassicaceæ (cabbage) and water cress is botanically named nasturtium officinale. |
Effect: | Nasturtium and its relatives display a spicy aroma and a refreshing, peppery-pungent taste lasting only a few seconds. The aroma components are volatile and susceptible to both heat and moisture, so nasturtium and other cresses are always used fresh and should not be boiled, baked or otherwise heated. |
Etymology: | The genus name tropaeolum means “little trophy” in Latin, from the Greek tropaion “turning” or “retreat”. Species name majus is Latin for “greater”. The combined name refers to the growing habits of the plant, which is able to conquer any open space by twisting and turning its shoots to fill gaps and to seek the sun. The name nasturtium (used by the Romans for several cress-like plants and especially garden cress) probably derives from nasi-tortium “nose pain” from nasus “nose” and the verb torquere “torment” and refers to the sharp, pungent aroma. The term nasturtium has become the botanical genus name for water cress and in English it is commonly used for the water cress plant of new-world origin that was unknown to the Romans. In many languages, nasturtium bears names that relate to its supposed place of origin, e.g. French cresson d'Inde and Swedish Indiankrasse “native American cress”. Other names include references to “Latin” in reference to its import by Catholic monks, e.g. Turkish lâtin çiçeği and Bulgarian latinka. The German kapuzinerkresse, French capucine, Italian cappuccina and Arabic nabat al-kabbusin refer to the similarity between the shapes of nasturtium flowers and the cowl of Capuchin monks. Confusingly, nasturtium is the botanical name of water cress and not of the plant whose common name is nasturtium. Unlike water cress, wasabi, rocket and mustard, nasturtium does not release the characteristic isothiocyanate when cut or otherwise damaged. |
Uses: | Nasturtium and other cresses are considered interchangeable in the kitchen and are popular in Europe and North America where they are used for spreads (especially those based on cottage cheese) and salads. In Europe, cress leaves are not commonly combined with other fresh herbs but they are compatible with the fines herbes of French cuisine and may be used together with each of them. Leaves or flowers of nasturtium are commonly used to flavour herbal vinegar and cress is also very good for herb sauces. The disadvantage of nasturtium, as with other cresses, is that the leaves cannot be dried and thus are rarely traded. Nasturtium is an annual that grows quickly and easily in the garden with minimal effort. Its orange and yellow flowers are very decorative and have additional use as the buds and unripe fruits can be pickled and serve as a good substitute for capers. |
Nutmeg is one of the most subtle and versatile spices used in cooking. Together with its sister spice Mace (see separate entry) it deserves to be used much more widely than it currently is.
| Species: | Myristica fragrans. |
| Pictures: | The pictures show the nutmeg tree, the fruit splitting to reveal the nutmeg seed and its mace screen. |
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Nutmeg tree | Nutmeg splitting |
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Nutmeg seed in mace aril | Nutmegs, whole and ground |
| Origin: | South-East Asia. |
| Source: | Nutmegs originate from the Banda Islands archipelago in Eastern Indonesia. The main producers today are Indonesia (“East Indian nutmeg”) and Grenada (“West Indian nutmeg”). Indonesian nutmeg is exported mainly to Asia and Europe while Grenadan nutmeg mostly serves the US markets. |
Used Part: | Nutmeg is not a nut, but the kernel of an apricot-like fruit. The leathery tissue between the nutmeg stone and the pulp is the related spice, mace. Broken nutmegs and those infested by pests are used for distillation of oil of nutmeg and production of nutmeg extract. The pulp of the nutmeg fruit is tough, woody and very sour but is used in Indonesia to make the jam selei buah pala, which has a pleasant nutmeg aroma. |
Family: | Myristicaceæ (nutmeg family). |
Effect: | Nutmeg is strongly aromatic, resinous and warm in taste. Nutmeg quickly loses its fragrance when ground and hence the required amount should be grated from a whole nut immediately before usage. |
Etymology: | In many European countries the name of nutmeg derives from Latin nux muscatus “musky nut”, often with adaptation as in Danish muskatnød, French muscade and Greek moschokarido. It was known in England in the Middle Ages as notemugge. |
Uses: | Nutmeg only became known in Europe comparatively recently because of the limited geographical distribution of the nutmeg tree. It was introduced to European markets by Arab traders in the 11th century and was first used chiefly for flavouring beer. It was thought to originate from India. |
Most people think of orange only as a fruit or fruit juice, but the plant also offers a variety of culinary uses as a spice.
| Species: | Citrus sinensis. |
| Pictures: | The pictures show an orange tree, a ripe fruit and flower and a variety of fruits. |
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Orange tree and fruits | Ripe orange and flower | Bitter oranges |
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Ripe orange fruits | Blood orange fruit | Dried bitter orange fruits |
Origin: | Uncertain, probably Southern Asia. |
Source: | As with most citrus fruits, the history of the orange is uncertain. Until recently it was though that the orange tree was of Chinese origin, but it is now generally believed that oranges originate from North or North-Eastern India. The first oranges were brought to Europe by the Moors (probably in the 9th century) and grown in the Arab territories in Sicily and Spain (Andalucia). These oranges were not the sweet varieties commonly known today, but bitter oranges (also known as sour oranges, or Seville oranges after the city of Sevilla). Sweet oranges were introduced 500 years later, probably by Portuguese traders. Blood oranges were first grown in Sicily 150 years ago from plants imported from China. Although not difficult to cultivate, they are not grown commercially elsewhere. |
Used Part: | Fruit peel (pericarp). The fruit juice is also a valuable food additive. Candied or jellied orange peel (orange succade) is prepared from the thick-skinned bitter orange, a closely related species. Extracts and distillates of orange blossoms play an important role in the perfume industry but have little culinary use. Orange blossom water (neroli water) is an aqueous distillate used to flavour sweets and drinks. |
Family: | Rutaceae (citrus family). |
Effect: | The peel is strongly aromatic with a pleasant, sweet odour but a bitter taste. The fruit juice is mild, balanced sweet-sour. Orange blossom water does not resemble orange juice and has a strong fragrance that is generally found very pleasant. |
Etymology: | Most names of orange in European tongues ultimately derive from the Sanskrit nagaruka or naranga which was transmitted via Arabic and Persian. The Sanskrit name originated from another tongue, possibly the Dravidian root “fragrant” as suggested by the Tamil nagarukam “sweet orange” and nari “fragrance”. Most names for “orange” in modern languages of North India are also similar to the Sanskrit term, e.g. Hindi and Urdu narangi. Although Spanish naranja “orange” and Greek neratzi “bitter orange” preserved the original sounds, most European languages modified the Sanskrit name. It lost its initial n (Italian arancia), then changed the initial vowel under the influence of the French word or “gold” to become the English orange. Portuguese laranja belongs to that series of changes, together with Japanese orenji. The association with gold is also found in Greek chrisomilia, which literally means “golden apple” corresponding to Old Greek chrysos “gold” and mēlon “apple”. The same expression in Latin, pomum aurantium “golden apple”, lies behind many names for bitter orange, e.g. German pomeranze and Russian pomeranets. In some Slavonic languages the use of the adjective "sweet" turns the bitter orange into the common variety, e.g. Slovenian sladka pomaranča. The former botanical species name aurantium related to aurum “gold”, whereas the modern species name sinensis is from the Latin Sina “China”. Many names in tongues of Northern Europe mean “Chinese apple”, e.g. Latvian apelsīns and Icelandic appelsína. Note also the Dutch sinaasappel “China-apple”. Some SouthEast European tongues name the fruit after Portugal, which was formerly the main source of imports of sweet oranges. Examples are Bulgarian portokal, Greek portokali and Georgian phortokhali. In Southern Italian dialects, orange is named portogallo, literally “the Portuguese ones”. Related names are also found in non-European languages, e.g. Arabic burtuqal and Farsi porteghal. For the derivation of the botanical genus name citrus, see the entry for lemon. |
Uses: | Orange is cultivated as a fruit and a source of juice world-wide, wherever the climate permits. Orange also has an important use as a flavouring for sweet and salty foods with three different parts of the plant used as a spice, namely orange blossoms, orange juice and orange zest (the outermost, orange-coloured layer of the peel). The three have different flavours and cannot be interchanged. Most important is the grated pericarp (peel) which is popular in European sweets and cakes and also finds application in meat and fish dishes. Care must be taken not to use in excess as this makes dishes taste perfumed and bitter. In Provence, the spice mixture bouquet garni is usually enhanced with a piece of orange peel (often bitter orange which has a finer flavour). In the Far East, orange is rarely used as a spice. Some Chinese recipes use orange pulp, juice and zest to flavour meats, typically combined with hot chillies and Sichuan pepper. An example is au larm, a spicy beef stew from the highlands of Sichuan. Coarsely cubed beef is simmered in a little water for two or three hours together with star anise, slices of fresh ginger and orange peel. Half an hour before serving, soy sauce is added together with crushed Sichuan pepper and black pepper briefly fried in a little oil. Chinese master sauces are often flavoured with fresh or dried orange peel. Tangerine peel is part of the Japanese spice mixture shichimi tōgarashi and this can be substituted by orange peel although the latter is slightly more bitter. Orange blossom water ma zahr “flower water” is a fragrant product made by distilling (bitter) orange buds and flowers. It is most popular in North Africa and Western Asia, where it is mostly used for salads and very sweet desserts. In Lebanon, it is diluted with water and sugared to yield a digestive qahwa baida “white coffee”. This can be used as a substitute for rose water in European sweets and its unique fragrance also gives an unusual touch to fruit drinks, syrups and ice cream. Bitter orange is important as the source of jellied orange peel which is an important ingredient of many European cakes. It enjoys high popularity in Britain in the form of marmalade, a jam made from bitter orange fruit. Another British specialty containing bitter orange is the famous Cumberland sauce, the recipe for which originates from the 18th century. Finely chopped bitter orange peel, orange juice, red wine and various fruit jellies are mixed together and salt, black pepper and pungent mustard paste are added to taste. The spicy and fruity tasting sauce fits perfectly to venison. British cooks sometimes use orange juice as a flavouring for meat stews, particularly venison. There are also Cantonese recipes using orange juice as the basis of sweet-sour sauces for stir-fried meat and Latin American cuisine often uses the acidic juice of bitter oranges. Orange is commonly employed in Caribbean and Brazil recipes and enjoys its greatest popularity in the Maya cooking of the Mexican Yucatan peninsular. Essential oils extracted from bitter orange are sold as oil of neroli (distilled from the blossoms), oil of petitgrain (from the leaves) or oil of orange (from the pericarp) but only the fragrance of the latter is typically orange-like. These extracted oils are mostly used by the perfume industry. Bergamot orange (a relation of bitter orange) has an extremely aromatic fruit peel rarely used for cooking, but famous as the aroma associated with the British specialty tea, Earl Grey. This fruit should not be confused with the plant known as bergamot, unrelated to orange and a close relative of lemon balm. Orange fragrance is much less common in the plant kingdom than lemon fragrance, with only chameleon plant coming close amongst plants with culinary use. However, orange-scented cultivars of some herbs have been bred, notably peppermint and thyme. |
Black pepper is my favourite spice and I much prefer it to white, except where the latter is required for something pale such as the classic Béchamel sauce. But black, white, green and red pepper - and the trendy multi-coloured peppercorns you so often find in restaurants these days - are all the same species, unlike some other peppers that I describe separately.
| Species: | Piper nigrum. |
| Pictures: | These show stages in the production of pepper. |
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Plantation pepper plants | Unripe pepper fruits and leaf | Peppercorns - top: dried , bottom: pickled |
Origin: | South Asia. |
Source: | Black pepper is native to the Malabar region of South India and has been cultivated for millennia. Black and white pepper were known in antiquity, but green and red pepper are relatively recent. Pepper arrived in South-East Asia more than 2,000 years ago and has been grown in Malaysia and Indonesia ever since. At the end of the last century, production expanded in Thailand, Vietnam, China and Sri Lanka. The only important New World producer is Brazil, where plantations were established in the 1930s. India and Indonesia together account for about 50% of the world’s total production. The best Indian grades are malabar and tellicherry, both of which are highly aromatic and pungent. In South-East Asia, the best black pepper originates from Sarawak in Malaysia and Lampong in Indonesia. Black pepper from elsewhere varies in heat and lacks the complex aroma found in Indian, Malaysian and Indonesian cultivars. The most important source of white pepper is the Indonesian island of Bangka, where peppercorns are named muntok after the island's main port. Small amounts of particularly light-coloured white pepper are grown in Sarawak, the best quality being known as Sarawak cream label. Brazil grows black, white and green peppercorns along the Amazon river in the state of Pará (from where paracress comes) and holds a near-monopoly in green pepper. Brazilian black and white pepper qualities are mild and are named after Pará's main port, Belém. |
Used Part: | Dried fruits. These are known as "peppercorns" and sometimes incorrectly referred to as "pepper seeds". |
Family: | Piperaceæ (pepper family). |
Effect: | Pungent and aromatic, with pungency strongest in white pepper and weakest in green pepper, but with black and green peppercorns more aromatic than white. |
Etymology: | The name pepper is derived from the Sanskrit pippali for the different spice long pepper. That gave rise to Greek peperi and Latin piper, which both eventually came to mean black pepper. The names of pepper in almost all European languages are derived from Latin piper, e.g. Enlish pepper, French poivre and German pfeffer. Spanish pimienta and Portuguese pimenta have a different origin. Because pepper did not arrive in the Middle East until the end of 4th century, it is not named in the Old Testament. Several languages loan the Greek piperi, e.g. Arabic filfil, Hebrew pilpel and Turkish biber. Many common names of other spices have been influenced by pepper, e.g. paprika, peppermint, water pepper, red pepper, pepper herb, Jamaica pepper and pepper-root. In Chinese, many spices are named similarly as variants of the native Sichuan pepper. Hindi and Punjabi mirch is derived from the Sanskrit maricha "black pepper" but has taken the meaning "chilli". The original meaning applies only when used with an adjective, as in Hindi kali mirch "black chilli" and Punjabi gol mirch "round chilli". Naming pepper after chilli in India is ironic, as pepper is native to India whereas chilli was only introduced 500 years ago. Chinese hu jiao, which means "wild pepper", is the original source both of Japanese koshō and of Korean huchu. |
Origins: | Black pepper, grown in South India for more than two thousand years, has always been highly valued all over the world. After Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BC, trading routes were established that brought pepper to the West for the first time and its popularity made it a very important item of commerce. Arab traders established a monopoly and transferred it via the spice route to European customers, keeping the origin of pepper a secret. In spite of its astronomical price, pepper was much used by the Romans and in the Early Middle Ages it became a status symbol of fine cooking. At this time, Venice monopolised trade with the Arabs, just as the Arabs monopolised trade with the Indian producers. Few Europeans could afford pepper, so cooks were forced to use poor substitutes such as chaste tree berries, grains of paradise, negro pepper and myrtle berries. Increasing demand in the 15th century led to Portuguese adventurer Vasco de Gama reaching India and obtaining the spice directly from the producers, bypassing the monopolists. Lisbon replaced Venice as the spice centre of Europe until the Dutch and British won control of Asian territories and supply routes in the 19th century. In Central Europe, water pepper was sometimes used as a substitute in times of shortage, but is no longer produced. German chefs used savory during World War II, when imports of tropical spices were dramatically reduced. There have been other times when black pepper has gone out of culinary fashion in Europe, with long pepper and cubeb pepper sometimes used in the past and with Sichuan pepper, South American pink pepper and Tasmanian pepper more popular recently. |
Uses: | Pepper is unique in the spice world as the fruits are sold as peppercorns of four varieties: black, white, green and red. By choosing the time of harvest and the processing method, all four can be produced from the same plant. For black pepper, the fruits are harvested when nearly ripe and stored at room temperature. Fermentation takes place and the green fruits turn black. They are then dried, usually in direct sunlight. The later pepper is picked, the better its flavour becomes. Once ripe, however, the fruits cannot be fermented as their sugar content would cause rotting. Pepper made from yellow/orange berries at the last possible moment is produced in India, has a particularly good flavour and is traded as tellicherry pepper. White pepper is made from fully ripened pepper fruits. The outer hull must be removed to extract the sugar and this also removes some of the volatile aroma compounds. As a result, white pepper has the full pungency of black pepper but has less flavour. It is more expensive than black pepper due to the extra processing work involved. Green pepper from Madagascar is harvested when the fruits are far from ripe and is processed without fermentation. The freshly harvested peppercorns are pickled in salt or vinegar, or quick-dried at high temperature or in vacuum. Green pepper has limited pungency but has a fresh, herbal, "green" flavour. The same pickling process can be applied to ripe fruits, in which case their colour is retained and red pepper is produced. Red peppercorn is rare and is much more pungent and aromatic than green pepper - combining the spicy, mature flavour of black pepper with the fresh notes of green. Red pepper should not be confused with pink pepper, which comes from a different plant with relatively little peppery quality. Although four coloured peppers are produced, black pepper dominates in production and consumption. Red pepper is mainly an exotic curiosity. Green pepper is mainly used in white mustard and bottled condiments and is the pepper of choice for peppered steak and for sauces to accompany stewed or fried meats. Pickled green peppercorns are often used as a spicy garnish for cold dishes and dried green peppercorns are useful for delicate dishes where the heavy pungency of black pepper would drown the taste. White pepper is mainly used in Western cooking, particularly for cream-based sauces such as Béchamel where black pepper would spoil the colour. A famous dish that uses white pepper is gefilte fish "stuffed fish", a Jewish speciality. White pepper is also used when pungency takes predominance over flavour, typically as a table condiment. The mildly aromatic pungency of white pepper has become popular in Japan, where it is often used as an alternative to the local variety of Sichuan pepper in meat marinades. Although Chinese cooking does not use pepper very much, white pepper is the chief source of pungency in the hot and sour soup suanla tang. For all other purposes, black pepper is preferred and is widely used in almost all of the world’s cuisines. Pepper cultivation has increased and spread in recent years, with black pepper introduced into cuisines that used little or no pepper before such as that of Thailand. The Vietnamese also use much more black pepper than a few decades ago and local pepper production is well-established. Black pepper is added to simmered soups and often appears as a table condiment. In Cambodia, black pepper is part of the ubiquitous table condiment tik marij, a mixture of lime juice, salt and freshly ground pepper. Ironically, black pepper is little used in the cuisines of Malaysia and Indonesia, although these are the world's oldest production areas other than India. Pepper is also used in some deserts. The combination of ripe strawberries and green pepper is almost a classic in European cooking and a pinch of pepper can well be used for other mild fruits, resulting in a particularly "exotic" taste. Indonesians use pepper to prepare a hot fruit salad called rujak. High-quality dark chocolate enhanced with a dash of black pepper has recently appeared on the European market. Peppered sweetmeats were common in Ancient Greece and Rome for those who could afford them and a few such recipes are still found in European cuisines, e.g. Italian panforte and German lebkuchen. Pepper appears in numerous spice mixtures including Iraqi baharat, Anglo-Indian curry powder, North Indian garam masala and South Indian sambaar podi. Because the Arabs monopolised pepper trade for millennia it is not surprising that pepper plays a major role in Arabian spice mixtures, including the famous Yemeni zhoug, Moroccan ras el hanout and Ethiopian berbere. Pepper is common in the Creole cuisine of New Orleans, is a main constituent of the French quatre épices and is loved all over the world for spicy meat stews, steaks, sauces and all kinds of vegetable dishes. The celebrated French sauce Béarnaise owes part of its spicy flavour to black peppercorns simmered in vinegar. Pepper pungency also goes well with sour flavours. In Europe and the US, mixtures of coarsely ground black pepper and lemon juice are popular for flavouring poultry and fish. This so-called "lemon pepper" should not be confused with the Indonesian variety of Sichuan pepper bearing the same name. |